Editorial Style Guide

The Harvard Law School Editorial Style Guide was developed by the Harvard Law School Communications Office to support consistency within and among multiauthor Harvard Law School publications (magazines, reports, journals, and newsletters) and platforms (websites, blogs, and social channels) across the school. Based on the guide developed by the Harvard Gazette, it follows AP Stylebook guidelines, with minor modifications specific to Harvard University and Harvard Law School. This document is designed to serve as a guide for all written editorial content on the Harvard Law School website, Harvard Law Today, the Harvard Law Bulletin, and other platforms, and will be updated annually.

The companion A-Z Style Guide is also available as a reference — providing recommendations for spelling, capitalization, punctuation, and proper usage of common words and phrases.

Spelling guidance will be drawn from The Merriam-Webster Dictionary or Merriam-Webster online.

For questions about this guide, please contact the HLS Communications Office at editorial@lists.law.harvard.edu.

Last updated: January 2026

Degrees

Law Degrees

Always capitalize and use periods as noted below:

  • J.D., J.D.s, Juris Doctor (three-year degree program)
  • LL.M., LL.M.s, Master of Laws (one-year degree program)
    • use “an” before LL.M.
  • LL.B., LL.B.s, Bachelor of Laws (the first professional law degree in the U.S. before the J.D., it was phased out in the 1960s)
    • use “an” before LL.B.
  • S.J.D., S.J.D.s, Doctor of Juridical Science (equivalent to research doctorate)
    • use “an” before S.J.D.

Harvard Law School Joint Degrees

  • J.D./M.B.A.: Law and Business (Master in Business Administration)
  • J.D./M.P.P.: Law and Government (Master in Public Policy)
  • J.D./M.P.A.-I.D.: Law and Government (Master in Public Administration in International Development)
  • J.D./M.P.H.: Law and Public Health (Master of Public Health)
  • J.D./M.U.P.: Law and Urban Planning (Master in Urban Planning)
  • J.D./Ph.D.: Coordinated program to earn Ph.D. from the Graduate School of Arts and Sciences (Doctor of Philosophy)
  • J.D./LL.M.: International Joint Degree with the University of Cambridge Faculty of Law to earn a Cambridge LL.M.

Non-law Degrees

  • The following degree formats are lower case: master’s degree, bachelor’s degree, doctorate. Use an apostrophe in bachelor’s degree, a master’s, etc.
  • Capitalize official degree names, such as Bachelor of Arts, which can be written out or abbreviated. There is no possessive in Bachelor of Arts (or Master of Science).
  • To abbreviate, use initials with periods: B.A., B.S., M.A., M.S., Ph.D., Ph.D.s.
  • Harvard uses the following degrees: A.B., S.B., A.M., S.M.
  • If mention of degrees is necessary to establish credentials, the preferred form is to avoid an abbreviation and use instead a phrase such as: Fatima Kader, who has a doctorate in psychology.
  • Do not precede a name with a courtesy title for an academic degree and follow it with the abbreviation for the degree in the same reference: Dr. Welby or Marcus Welby, M.D., not Dr. Welby, M.D.

For editorial purposes we will always use the periods in degrees. However, if you are creating a poster, social media post, etc. — something where space is at a premium or readability is an issue — you can use your discretion.

Degree Abbreviations: Referring to Students and Alumni

  • When referring to Harvard Law faculty, students, and alumni who have a J.D. or LL.B. degree from Harvard Law (see LL.B. exception below if they graduated more than 100 years ago) include only their two-digit graduation year after their name: John F. Manning ’85, not John F. Manning J.D. ’85. Include the degree abbreviation only if they have a graduate or joint degree: Nawaf Salam LL.M. ’91, Ann Wong J.D./M.P.P. ’12.
  • For Harvard Law faculty, students, and alumni who have an LL.M., an S.J.D., or a joint degree, include the degree abbreviation and the two-digit graduation year: Yuji Iwasawa LL.M. ’78, Ann Wong J.D./M.P.P. ’12.
  • If they have multiple degrees from Harvard Law, list both degrees and graduation years without a comma between the two Harvard Law degrees: Jody Freeman LL.M. ’91 S.J.D. ’95.
  • If someone has earned both an LL.M. and S.J.D. from Harvard Law, but has waived the LL.M. degree, the LL.M. degree should not be listed, just the S.J.D. (Please consult the Graduate Program with questions.)
  • For people who graduated more than 100 years ago, use the four-digit graduation year and the degree: Oliver Wendell Holmes LL.B.1866.
  • Other Harvard degrees are typically not listed unless they are part of joint Harvard Law School degrees or if they are relevant to the story.
  • The preferred format is to spell out the degree name in a story. Capitalize an individual’s specific degree, but do not capitalize when referring to a degree generically. If it is appropriate to write out Juris Doctor and Master of Laws in places to make something clearer, please do, but recognize some readers won’t know what Master of Laws is any more than they would LL.M.: John Smith holds a Master of Arts in English. She is working toward her bachelor’s degree.

Academic Years and Terms

1L, 1Ls = First-year law student
2L, 2Ls = Second-year law student
3L, 3Ls = Third-year law student

  • No periods and no apostrophe before the s when plural
  • Writing out the student’s year is preferred, at least on first reference: First-year student Jamie Jones. Not: 1L Jamie Jones.

Graduation Years

  • Do not use graduation years in post or page titles: Kenneth W. Mack elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
  • Do use graduation years in first mention in the story: Professor Kenneth W. Mack ’91, the Lawrence D. Biele Professor at Harvard Law School and affiliate professor of History at Harvard University, has been elected to the American Academy of Arts and Sciences.
  • It is not necessary to use graduation years in captions, excerpts, or subheadings.

Titles (Faculty and Courses)

Class and Course Titles

  • Official course/class titles are capitalized, but generic areas of study are not: Jody Freeman’s Climate and Energy Law and Policy class; Professor Mark Roe’s bankruptcy class.

Faculty Titles

Please refer to the Harvard Law School Faculty Directory for the most up-to-date list of faculty names and titles.

  • Capitalize titles before a name, but do not capitalize after, or when the faculty member is referred to by their title alone out of context: Professor of Practice Naz Modirzadeh is an expert on counterterrorism and international law; Naz Modirzadeh, professor of practice, is researching counterterrorism; “We are closing in on an answer,” the professor said.
  • Make sure the title is, in fact, a title and not a description of expertise: Professor of Law Nikolas Bowie references his full title and should be capitalized when it appears before his name; Harvard Law constitutional law scholar Nikolas Bowie describes his area of focus and should not be capitalized.
  • Named professorships are capitalized even following the person’s name: Yochai Benkler, Jack N. and Lillian R. Berman Professor for Entrepreneurial Legal Studies, has released a new study.
  • In subsequent citations, use the individual’s last name only: Bartholet said, not Professor Bartholet said.

Harvard Law School Names

Faculty Names

Please refer to the Harvard Law School Faculty Directory for the most up-to-date list of faculty names and titles.

  • Use the faculty name as listed, unless instructed otherwise. For example, use Randall Kennedy, not Randy Kennedy. The use of a middle initial or a middle name is often based on personal preference, and you are not required to use them.
  • There are some faculty members who prefer to include their middle name or initial, such as Andrew Manuel Crespo and Michael Ashley Stein. When in doubt, verify with past Harvard Law Today stories or other trusted sources, such as the faculty member’s own website or social media accounts.

Research Program Names

Current research program names can be found in the Research Program and Centers page.

  • Please use full names on first mention: Berkman Klein Center for Internet and Society, not just Berkman Klein. Also use the center’s preferred punctuation: The Brooks McCormick Jr. Animal Law & Policy Program uses an ampersand, not the word “and.”

Clinic Names

Visit the Clinical Programs page for full names and descriptions of each of the in-house clinics, externships, advanced clinical programs, and independent clinical programs.

Department Names

The Department Directory lists the proper names, department heads and titles, contact information, and a link to the staff directory for each department.

Harvard Law School Library

Refer to the library as Harvard Law School Library whenever possible. Use Harvard Law Library when space constraints don’t leave room for the full name. Avoid using HLS Library in public-facing, editorial or social content.

Do not refer to the library as Langdell Library. The Harvard Law School Library is located in, and entered through, Langdell Hall, but Langdell is not the name of the library.

Student Organizations

To find the official names for student orgs, please use the Student Organizations Directory or visit the student org’s website to see how they refer to themselves (often in the “About” section).

Student Journals and Publications

To find the official names for student journals and publications, please use the Student Journals and Publications Directory or visit the student journal’s or publication’s website to see how they refer to themselves (often in the “About” section).

Capitalization

  • For editorial content, use sentence case: Capitalize the first word of a sentence and proper nouns in titles, headlines, and subheads (deks). Do not capitalize all words in a title, headline, or subhead.
  • Exceptions are allowed for print layouts, when capitalization (and even all caps) may be preferred for design purposes.
  • For informational or transactional web content, you may use title case and capitalize words in a title or headline: Programs and Events for HLS Staff; Explore Career Resources
  • For nouns specific to Harvard University, and other common academic uses, please refer to the guidelines below:
  • When referring to Harvard Law School as school or law school or Harvard University as university in editorial content, do not capitalize those words. (Note that this deviates from the Harvard Gazette’s style.)
  • Harvard University and Harvard Law School Proper Nouns — capitalize the full, formal names of:
    • departments
    • colleges and schools
    • offices
    • centers
    • institutions
    • buildings
    • libraries
    • programs
    • awards
    • scholarships
  • Do not capitalize shortened names, which may be used after the first reference. For example: The Center on the Legal Profession held a conference on virtual courts. An issue of the center’s publication also focused on the topic.

Abbreviations and Acronyms

  • In general, when using abbreviations and acronyms, one should consider the audience the content is intended to reach. Acronyms are acceptable for communications with the Harvard Law School community (students, staff, faculty, alums), but are otherwise discouraged. External audiences — including those who may encounter posts on social media — are unlikely to be familiar with acronyms that are commonly known to members of the Harvard Law School community.
  • In editorial and/or public-facing content, avoid putting abbreviations in quotes or parentheses after the name — work the abbreviation into the story later: The United Nations Human Rights Council, also known as the UNHRC, was established in 2006.
  • In content intended specifically for internal audiences, it is appropriate on first reference to list office name abbreviations in parentheses after the name: Office of Career Services (OCS). For editorial and/or public-facing content, instead, use language that provides the acronym only if you feel it provides necessary information to the reader: per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances, known as PFAS.
  • Exceptions: it is not necessary to spell out some of the more common abbreviations on first reference, including, but not limited to:
    • ABA
    • AI
    • IP
    • IT
    • LGBTQ
    • ACLU
    • YMCA
    • PAC
    • NGO
    • UCLA
    • NYU
  • Generally, omit periods from acronyms, including for EU. Exceptions are acronyms such as U.S., U.K., B.A., B.C., and U.N.
  • It is acceptable to use U.S. instead of United States even on first reference.
  • Refer to an organization as it refers to itself: Boston University refers to itself as BU, not B.U.; the World Trade Organization as WTO, not W.T.O. Note: Harvard Law Today will use U.N. with periods per AP Style, but recognizes the United Nations does refer to themselves as UN (without periods).
  • No periods after letters in abbreviations or acronyms in headlines, even if used in body copy; U.S. or U.N. in the body of a story and US or UN in the headline.
  • States are abbreviated according to AP style guidelines (see below). State names should be written out in the body of a story, with or without a town/city name: Chelsea, Massachusetts, not Chelsea, Mass. or Chelsea, MA. Do not use two-letter postal codes unless it is part of an address. Following are the state abbreviations, and a list of the eight states that are not abbreviated (postal code abbreviations in parentheses):
    • Ala. (AL)
    • Ariz. (AZ)
    • Ark. (AR)
    • Calif. (CA)
    • Colo. (CO)
    • Conn. (CT)
    • Del. (DE)
    • Fla. (FL)
    • Ga. (GA)
    • Ill. (IL)
    • Ind. (IN)
    • Kan. (KS)
    • Ky. (KY)
    • La. (LA)
    • Md. (MD)
    • Mass. (MA)
    • Mich. (MI)
    • Minn. (MN)
    • Miss. (MS)
    • Mo. (MO)
    • Mont. (MT)
    • Neb. (NE)
    • Nev. (NV)
    • N.H. (NH)
    • N.J. (NJ)
    • N.M. (NM)
    • N.Y. (NY)
    • N.C. (NC)
    • N.D. (ND)
    • Okla. (OK)
    • Ore. (OR)
    • Pa. (PA)
    • R.I. (RI)
    • S.C. (SC)
    • S.D. (SD)
    • Tenn. (TN)
    • Vt. (VT)
    • Va. (VA)
    • Wash. (WA)
    • W.Va. (WV)
    • Wis. (WI)
    • Wyo. (WY)
  • These are the eight states that are not abbreviated, their postal codes, and the postal code for Washington D.C:
    • Alaska (AK)
    • Hawaii (HI)
    • Idaho (ID)
    • Iowa (IA)
    • Maine (ME)
    • Ohio (OH)
    • Texas (TX)
    • Utah (UT)
    • District of Columbia (DC).
  • When a month is used with a specific date, abbreviate only Jan., Feb., Aug., Sept., Oct., Nov. and Dec.: Valentine’s Day is Feb. 14. Do not abbreviate March, April, May, June, or July: July 4 is also known as Independence Day in the U.S.
  • Spell out months when using alone, or with a year alone: The New York City Marathon will take place in November 2025.
  • Do not abbreviate days of the week.
  • See Dates section for additional guidance.

Punctuation

Accents

Use accents or other diacritical marks with names of people who request them or are widely known to use them, or if quoting directly in a language that uses them: An officer spotted him and asked a question: “Cómo estás?” How are you? Otherwise, do not use these marks in English-language stories.

Do not use accents in the word resume (meaning CV).

Ampersand ( & )

Do not use an ampersand in place of the word and in a sentence. Incorrect: Students must take physics & chemistry classes.

Use an ampersand only in body text when it is part of an official name: Ropes & Gray; AT&T; S&P 500; Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society.

It is sometimes unclear whether or not an ampersand is part of an official name — often they are used only as a design element on a website or in print material. In such cases it is best to check a website’s About section for guidance.

Avoid using ampersands and other special characters in titles or headlines, if possible.

Apostrophe ( ‘ ’ )

  • Apostrophes should be used only for contractions and to demonstrate possession.
  • For singular common nouns ending in s, add ’s: the virus’s reach; the witness’s answer.
  • But: For singular proper nouns ending in s, including acronyms, add only an apostrophe: Chris’ dog, Achilles’ heel, DOS’ resources, Congress’ action.
  • For plural nouns ending in s, add only an apostrophe: the students’ grades.
  • For descriptive phrases, do not add an apostrophe to a word ending in s when it is used primarily in a descriptive sense: a Bruins goalie, a teachers college.
    • You can use this memory aid: The apostrophe usually is not used if for or by rather than of would be appropriate in the longer form: a goalie for the Bruins, a college for teachers.
  • An ’s is required, however, when a descriptive phrase involves a plural word that does not end in s: a children’s hospital, a people’s republic, the Young Men’s Christian Association.
  • Do not use ’s for plurals of numerals: the 1960s.

Brackets ( [  ] )

AP doesn’t like them, but we find we need them in specific cases. For example, when inserting a first name or a year or a location in a quote or for letting the reader know that a change was made to a quote:

“I used to work with Ralph Nader [’58] in D.C.”

“I took several courses with Professor [David] Rosenberg.”

“I started working at Michaels Inc. [in Los Angeles] in September.”

Colon ( : )

  • Capitalize the first word after a colon only if it is a proper noun or the start of a complete sentence.  He promised this: The new program will succeed.
  • Lists or fragmentary phrases after a colon should begin with a lowercase letter: There were three issues with the program: expense, staffing, and feasibility.
  • Exception: In a title or headline, use a capital letter after the colon, even if it is not a complete sentence.

Comma ( , )

Use the serial (or Oxford) comma: She rides planes, trains, airplanes, and boats.

Ellipsis ( … )

Use an ellipsis to indicate the deletion of one or more words in quoted material. Be especially careful to avoid deletions that would distort the meaning. An ellipsis also may be used to indicate a thought that the speaker or writer does not complete. Ellipses should always be separated by a space on either side between or after sentences or phrases.

  • Within a sentence to indicate an omission: The muffins were baked fresh … on premises.
  • Between sentences to indicate an omission: Widespread opposition soon arose. … The result was a broad legislative backlash.
  • The shortcut for creating an ellipsis on a Mac: Option + semicolon. On a PC: Hold down Alt key and type 0133.

Note that typing three periods in a program such as Microsoft Word may autocorrect to an ellipsis.

Also note that the ellipsis is a single, unique character. Do not use three periods as a substitute.

Em Dash ( — )

  • Add surrounding space around the em dash — like this. Do not use two hyphens (–) as an em dash.
  • The shortcut for creating an em dash on a Mac: Option + Shift + hyphen key. On a PC: Hold down the Alt key and type 0151

Note that typing two hyphens plus the spacebar in a program such as Microsoft Word may automatically convert those characters to an en dash, not an em dash.

Also note that AP refers to em dashes as simply dashes.

En Dash ( – )

  • AP generally does not use en dashes. Some other styles call for en dashes to indicate ranges, such as ranges of dates or times, or with some compound modifiers.
  • In some instances, en dashes are required, for example, when specifying a campus in certain university systems: University of Wisconsin–Madison.
  • The shortcut for creating an en dash on a Mac: Option + hyphen key. On a PC: hold down the Alt key and type 0150

Exclamation Points ( ! )

Avoid using exclamation points in editorial content unless they are part of a direct quote.

Hyphen ( – )

  • Use hyphens as joiners, such as for compound modifiers: little-known song, close-knit group, income-restricted housing.
  • AP also uses hyphens for ranges, such as Jan. 1-4, while some other styles use en dashes.
  • There should be no spaces surrounding a hyphen.
  • Use a hyphen to avoid ambiguity: He recovered his health; He re-covered the leaky roof.
  • Use a hyphen to avoid unintended meanings: better-qualified candidate, free-thinking philosophy.
  • Generally, use a hyphen in modifiers of three or more words: black-and-white photo, well-thought-out plan.
  • Generally, no hyphen is needed for double e combinations: reelect, preempted
  • No hyphen is needed for dual heritage terms (adj. or noun): African American, Asian American
  • No hyphen for two-word terms that are commonly recognized as, in effect, one word: third grade teacher, climate change report, emergency room visit.
  • Suspensive hyphenation: When the elements are joined by and or or, expressing more than one element:10-, 15-, or 20-minute intervals; 5- and 6-year-olds
  • But: The intervals are 10, 15, or 20 minutes; the children are 5 to 6 years old. When the elements are joined by to or by, expressing a single element: a 10-to-15-year prison term; an 8-by-12-inch pan. But: The prison term is 10 to 15 years; the pan is 8 by 12 inches.
  • Hyphens can be helpful after a verb if confusion could result: the technology is state-of-the-art.
  • Use a hyphen for compound adjectives occurring before a noun: well-known student, full-time job.
  • Do not use a hyphen when the compound modifier occurs after the verb: The student was well known. Her job became full time.
  • Often, arguments for or against using a hyphen can be made either way. As a general rule, try to judge what is most clear and logical to the average reader. When in doubt, consult the Merriam-Webster Dictionary or Merriam-Webster online.

Parentheses ( ( ) )

  • Avoid overuse of parentheses. Try to rewrite the sentence in a more direct manner, putting the incidental information between commas or em dashes, or write a separate sentence.
  • If you must use parentheses, place a period outside a closing parenthesis if the material inside is not a sentence (such as this fragment).
  • (An independent parenthetical sentence such as this one takes a period before the closing parenthesis.)
  • When a phrase placed in parentheses (this one is an example) might normally qualify as a complete sentence but is dependent on the surrounding material, do not capitalize the first word or end with a period.

Period ( . )

  • Use a single space after the period at the end of a sentence.
  • Do not put a space between initials: W.E.B. Du Bois Research Institute.

Quotation Marks ( “ ” , ‘ ’ )

  • Periods and commas always go inside quotation marks.
  • Colons, dashes, semicolons, question marks, and exclamation points go inside the quotation marks when they apply to the quotation. He said, “Are you kidding me?”
  • They go outside when they apply to the entire sentence. In high school I absolutely hated reading “Moby Dick”!; I haven’t yet read Samantha Power’s “‘A Problem from Hell’: America and the Age of Genocide.”
  • When supplying attribution for a quotation, the question mark supersedes the comma that normally is used: “Wherefore art thou Romeo?” asked Juliet.
  • When using quotation marks in a title, headline, or subheading (dek), use single quotation marks.
  • Journal articles and book titles go within quotation marks, but not journal or magazine titles: “Waste, Property, and Useless Things” by Merideth M. Render appeared in the March 2025 issue of the Harvard Law Review.

Semicolons ( ; )

  • Use semicolons in a series with elements that have internal commas: Attending the meeting were Laurence Tribe, Carl M. Loeb University Professor Emeritus; Molly Brady, Louis D. Brandeis Professor of Law; and John Goldberg, Morgan and Helen Chu Dean and Professor of Law.

Numbers

General Rules for Using Words vs. Numerals:

  • Spell out numbers one through nine. Use numerals for numbers greater than nine, but note the treatment for specific cases below.
  • Spell out numbers at the beginning of sentences: Twelve-time Grammy Award-winner Willie Nelson.
  • Always use numerals for the following:
    • Ages
      • Use hyphens for ages expressed as adjectives before a noun or as substitutes for a noun: a 5-year-old boy, but the boy is 5 years old. The boy, 5, has a sister, 10. The woman is in her 30s (no apostrophe), but is also 30-something. However, start a sentence with the words spelled out: Thirty-somethings take over the industry.
    • Days of the month
    • Degrees of temperature
      • Note that degrees is spelled out; do not use the º symbol.
      • Celsius and Fahrenheit are both capitalized.
    • Percentage
      • Use the symbol %; do not write out the word.
    • In a title, headline, or subheading, use a numeral for all numbers, even numbers under 10.

Dates

  • For dates and years, use numerals.
  • Do not use st, nd, rd, or th with dates. See ordinal numbers below for other uses.
  • Abbreviate months when a specific date is included; otherwise, spell it out. However, do not abbreviate March, April, May, June, July: Classes begin Jan. 25. The semester begins in January.
  • When using the month, day, and year, use a comma between the month and day and the year, and after the year: On May 22, 2021, Harvard Law School will host the conference.
  • For the Sept. 11, 2001, terrorist attacks, 9/11 is acceptable in all references.

Fractions

Spell out fractions less than 1 and hyphenate between words: two-thirds of a teaspoon of vanilla. Use numerals for numbers greater than or equal to one: 1 1/3 cups of milk.

Large Numbers

For very large numbers (over 1 million) use a combination of numerals and words, to eliminate a string of zeros: The program cost $2.3 million. In headlines, abbreviate the millions and billions only: The program cost $2.3M; Over 1.25B people watched the event live. Do not go beyond two decimal places: 7.51 million people.

Multiple Numbers Used Together

When two numbers occur together, spell out one of them for clarity. When this happens, one of the numbers is usually a unit of measurement; that number is the better one to set in numerals: Stephen is taking three 4-credit courses during the fall term.

Numbers at the Beginning of a Sentence

With the exception of years, which are always numerals, spell out numbers when they begin sentences. If the number is too long and awkward to spell out, rephrase the sentence: Fifty students passed the exam not 50 students passed the exam. Exception: in titles, headlines, or subheadings (deks) you can use numerals, even under 10.

Ordinal Numbers

Use numerals for ordinal numbers above ninth; spell out ordinals under 10th: fifth place; 21st century.

  • Court decisions are figures: It was a 5-4 decision.
  • Always spell out names of Circuit Courts of Appeals: Tenth Circuit Court of Appeals; Court of Appeals for the Eleventh Circuit.
  • Do not use superscript for suffixes: 21st century, not 21st century.

Percent

When using numerals with percent, use a % sign; do not spell out percent: The loan program was set at 9%. He received a 3% raise.

Time

  • Use numerals, to express times of day, but spell out noon and midnight.
  • Use a colon to separate hours from minutes, but do not use :00: 1 p.m.; 3:30 a.m.
  • Always use periods after letters in a.m. and p.m.

Symbols

U.S. Currency (dollar / dollar sign)

  • The word dollar is always lowercase.
  • Use numerals and the dollar sign ($) in all except casual references or amounts without a figure: The book cost $4. Dad, please give me a dollar. Dollars are flowing overseas.
  • For specified amounts, the word takes a singular verb: He said $500,000 is what they want.
  • For amounts of more than $1 million, use up to two decimal places. Do not link the numerals and the word by a hyphen: He is worth $4.35 million.
  • The form for amounts less than $1 million: $4, $25, $500, $1,000, $650,000
  • Use numerals with million, billion, or trillion in all except casual uses: I’d like to make a billion dollars. But: The nation has 1 million citizens. I need $7 billion. The government ran a deficit of more than $1 trillion.
  • Do not drop the word million or billion in the first figure of a range: He is worth from $2 million to $4 million, not $2 to $4 million, unless you really mean 2 dollars.
  • In headlines, abbreviate thousands, millions, billions: $3K investment, $5M lawsuit, $17.4B trade deficit.

Foreign Currency

  • AP uses $ to designate amounts in U.S. dollars, as in $1 million or $1. When the story involves other dollar currencies, use these: AU$ for Australian dollars, CA$ for Canadian dollars, SG$ for Singapore dollars, NZ$ for New Zealand dollars, HK$ for Hong Kong dollars, NT$ for New Taiwan dollars, and ZW$ for Zimbabwe dollars.
  • Currency conversions are necessary in stories that use foreign currency to make clear for readers how a number translates into dollars: It came to $680 million Canadian dollars ($618 million). But conversions should be used sparingly and preferably not in the lead unless it’s a significant part of a story. A conversion is generally needed only the first time a currency is mentioned. The reader can make the necessary conversions after that.
  • Do not convert amounts that are not current, because exchange rates change over time.
  • If necessary for clarity in the story, specify that the conversion is at current exchange rates.

Latitude and Longitude

Latitude, the distance north or south of the equator, is designated by parallels. Longitude, the distance east or west of Greenwich, England, is designated by meridians. Use these forms to express degrees of latitude and longitude: New York City lies at 40 degrees 45 minutes north latitude and 74 degrees 0 minutes west longitude; New York City lies south of the 41st parallel north and along the 74th meridian west.

Measurements

In nontechnical text, units of measurement are abbreviated only when space is at a premium (e.g., in tables) or when the abbreviations facilitate comprehension (e.g., when numerical data cluster thickly in a paragraph). Abbreviations: foot (ft), kilogram (kg), meter (m), mile (mi), second (sec).

When an abbreviated unit of measurement appears in a compound adjective preceding a noun, the compound is not hyphenated: a 20 ft wall, a 13 m tube, a 10 km race, a 5 kg carton.

Temperature

Use figures for all except zero. Use a word, not a minus sign, to indicate temperatures below zero: The day’s low was minus 10. The day’s low was 10 below zero.

Temperatures get higher or lower, but they don’t get warmer or cooler: Temperatures are expected to rise in the area Friday. We are expecting lower temperatures to start the week.

Publications

Do not underline or italicize publications, including journals, magazines, and newspapers: The Harvard Law Review; The New York Times.  

Use quotation marks around the titles of:

  • blog posts (but not blogs)
  • books
  • journal articles (but not journal names)
  • conferences and symposiums
  • lecture or forum titles (but not lecture or forum series)
  • museum exhibits
  • poems
  • songs
  • speeches
  • television shows

Example: They sang “The Star-Spangled Banner” before the game. “Edward Steichen: A Biography” (2000) is by Penelope Niven. The session titled “When Is Speech Violence? And Other Questions About Campus Speech” is part of the Harvard Law School Rappaport Forum.

Language

That and Which:

Use that and which in referring to inanimate objects and to animals without a name.

  • In general, a which clause is surrounded by commas; no commas are used with that clauses.
  • Use that for essential clauses, important to the meaning of a sentence, and without commas: I remember the day that we met.
  • Use which for nonessential clauses, where the clause is less necessary, and use commas: The team, which finished last a year ago, is in first place.
  • Tip: If you can drop the clause and not lose the meaning of the sentence, use which; otherwise, use that.

Onto vs. On to

Onto is a preposition that implies movement and is more specific than on.

A good trick to remember when to use on to vs. onto is to try inserting up before on in a sentence. If it still makes sense, then onto is probably the correct choice: Don’t climb onto that beam. But: Hang on to the handlebars; I can’t log on to my computer.

Political References

  • Capitalize both the name of the party and the word party if it is customarily used as part of the organization’s proper name: the Democratic Party, the Republican Party.
  • Include the political affiliation and legislative title of any elected officeholder:
    • Use Rep., Reps., Sen. and Sens. as formal titles before one or more names. Spell out and lowercase representative and senator in other uses.
    • Spell out other legislative titles in all uses. Capitalize formal titles such as chair, city councilor, delegate, etc., when they are used before a name. Lowercase in other uses.
    • Party affiliation can be used on first reference when it is the most important element to connect with the subject: Republican Sen. Tim Scott of South Carolina said …
    • On second reference to add context between the party affiliation and the rest of the story:  Frank Lucas of Oklahoma, the senior Republican on the House Agriculture Committee, said he supports the amendment.
    • Leave out when the story is clearly not political: The governor attended the NCAA Tournament basketball game, having graduated from Villanova in 1995. The senator attended her daughter’s high school graduation.
    • But use when a political connection exists: The Democratic governor sat courtside next to the top donor to his campaign. The Republican senator spoke at her daughter’s graduation two weeks after voting on the education bill.
    • Use the abbreviations listed in the AP Stylebook for each state (see list above under Abbreviations and Acronyms). No abbreviations for Alaska, Hawaii, Idaho, Iowa, Maine, Ohio, Texas, and Utah.
    • The normal practice for U.S. House members is to identify them by party and state. In contexts where state affiliation is clear and home city is relevant, such as a state election roundup, identify representatives by party and city: U.S. Reps. Ander Crenshaw, R-Jacksonville, and Frederica Wilson, D-Miami. If this option is used, be consistent throughout the story.
  • Capitalize the following: Communist, Conservative, Democrat, Liberal, Republican, Socialist, etc., when they refer to a specific party or its members. Lowercase these words when they refer to political philosophy.
  • Lowercase the name of a philosophy in noun and adjective forms unless it is the derivative of a proper name: communism, communist; fascism, fascist. But: Marxism, Marxist; Nazism, Nazi
    • Examples: John Adams was a Federalist, but a man who subscribed to his philosophy today would be described as a federalist. The liberal Republican senator and his Conservative Party colleague said they believe that democracy and communism are incompatible. The Communist Party member said he is basically a socialist who has reservations about Marxism.
  • Capitalize U.S. Congress and Congress when referring to the U.S. Senate and House of Representatives. Although Congress sometimes is used as a substitute for the House, it properly is reserved for reference to both the Senate and House.
  • Congressional is lowercase unless part of a proper name: congressional salaries; Congressional Quarterly.
  • Congressional districts: Use figures and capitalize district when joined with a figure: the 1st Congressional District; the 11th District. Lowercase district when it stands alone.

Courts, Judges, Court Cases

Court Cases

  • Court case names are italicized.
  • The versus in a court case name is always v. not vs.
  • For court cases, you can use a shortened version of a longer case name, but make sure to use the official decision shortened name, and keep it italicized.

Justice

Capitalize before a name when it is the formal title. It is the formal title for members of the U.S. Supreme Court and for jurists on some state courts. In such cases, do not use judge in the first or subsequent references.

Judge

Capitalize before a name when it is the formal title for an individual who presides in a court of law. Do not continue to use the title in second reference. Do not use court as part of the title unless confusion would result without it.

  • Where court is not needed: Southern District Judge Jalen Garner; District Judge Jalen Garner; federal Judge Jalen Garner; Judge Jalen Garner. U.S. Circuit Judge Priscilla Owen; appellate Judge Priscilla Owen.
  • Where court is needed to avoid confusion: Juvenile Court Judge Gabriela Cabrera; Criminal Court Judge John Jones; Superior Court Judge Robert Harrison; state Supreme Court Judge Keri Liu.
  • When the formal title of the chief judge is relevant, put the court name after the judge’s name: Chief Judge Denise J. Casper of the U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts; Chief Judge Albert Diaz of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fourth Circuit.
  • Do not pile up long court names before the name of a judge: Judge John Smith of the Allegheny County Common Pleas Court. Not: Allegheny County Common Pleas Court Judge John Smith.
  • A judge serves on or presides over a court. A judge is a member of a court: Nancy Gertner served as a judge on the U.S. District Court for the District of Massachusetts from 1994 to 2011 and is now a senior lecturer on law at Harvard Law School. Sachs clerked for Chief Justice John G. Roberts Jr. ’79 during the 2009-2010 Supreme Court term, and for the late Judge Stephen F. Williams ’61 of the U.S. Court of Appeals for the D.C. Circuit in 2007-2008.
  • Lowercase judge as an occupational designation in phrases: American Idol judge Simon Cowell.

Supreme Court of the United States

  • Capitalize U.S. Supreme Court or Supreme Court (when the context makes the U.S. designation unnecessary). Also, when the U.S. Supreme Court is referred to on second reference or in other instances, Court must be capitalized.
  • The chief justice is officially Chief Justice of the United States, not Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, although the full title is rarely used: Chief Justice John Marshall.
  • The official title for the eight other members of the court is associate justice. When used as a formal title before a name, it should be shortened to justice and should be used in each mention: Justice Elena Kagan; Justice Kagan.

U.S. Constitution

  • Capitalize references to the U.S. Constitution, with or without the U.S. modifier: The president said he supports the Constitution.
  • When referring to constitutions of other nations or of states, capitalize only with the name of a nation or a state: the French Constitution, the Massachusetts Constitution, the nation’s constitution, the state constitution, the constitution.
  • Lowercase in other uses: the organization’s constitution
  • Lowercase constitutional in all uses.

Law Firm Names

Do not include P.C. or LLC unless it’s in a quote or in a profile of an individual.

Online Formatting

  • All links should open in the same window to optimize the experience for users with accessibility concerns, including users of screen readers.
  • In first reference, when possible, link faculty names to official Harvard Law faculty directory pages (as opposed to program page like Berkman Klein Center, or personal website).
  • Link name and grad year only, not title.
  • Avoid using text hyperlinks with the specific web URL: Visit hls.harvard.edu/communications-office/. Use descriptive link text instead: Visit the Harvard Law School Communications Office website.
  • Avoid single words or short vague phrases such as click here or read more. Use descriptive text to make sure the reader knows where the link will take them, and include action verbs if appropriate: Apply for the fellowship today. Learn more about the application process.
  • Include (PDF) after a link to a PDF: Read Professor Sullivan’s prepared remarks (PDF).
  • Don’t hyperlink punctuation unless it’s part of the link text, including quotes around a book title.
  • In addition to hyperlinking to Harvard Law-related people, centers, departments, etc. within a story, it is acceptable to hyperlink to other prominent people, relevant stories, articles, papers, etc. However, be judicious and make sure hyperlinks always go to relevant content that enhances the reader’s experience and understanding of the content.
  • Reputable, non-partisan sources external to Harvard Law School websites are acceptable (e.g., supremecourt.gov, SCOTUSBlog, or even Wikipedia) but always use discretion to avoid linking to content that appears to be biased, or content that contains false or misleading information.
  • Per Harvard University Endorsement Guidelines, do not link to third-party fundraising efforts. Avoid linking to storefronts whenever possible (e.g., link to the book publisher’s website instead of Amazon).

Images

  • Optimize images before bringing them into WordPress.
  • Photos should not be more than 5MB.
  • 2550 pixels is a good maximum width or height for editorial or full-width images.
  • Enter alt text for every photo. It should be descriptive of the photo content, but concise, providing assistance for people using screen readers, but also in case the image doesn’t load in the browser. Learn more about alt text on Harvard’s Digital Accessibility Services website.

Photo Captions and Credits

  • Always include a photographer attribution when we have one.
  • When an image is provided, start the credit with “Courtesy of.”
  • For location of individuals in a photo, we recommend the following: From left; Clockwise from top left; More than 50 people participated, including Sally Yates, third from left.

Page and Post Titles

  • For editorial content, use sentence case: Capitalize the first word and only proper nouns in titles, headlines, and subheads (deks). Do not capitalize all words in a title, headline, or subhead.
  • For informational or transactional content, use title case: Use initial caps on all words, except for minor words (articles, short prepositions, and conjunctions) unless they are the first or last word of the title.
  • Include keywords in titles whenever possible. Page and post titles are usually weighted heavily by search engines, so give thought to what users might search by or for, and optimize your content accordingly.
  • Keep length in mind — titles should be less than 60 characters, if possible, to prevent truncation in search results.

Page and Post Subtitles

  • For editorial content, use initial cap then caps on proper nouns only (sentence case).
  • Follow title guidelines for punctuation — use single quotation marks, not double.

Headings

Headings exist to provide semantic structure to a document or webpage; it is very important to use them sequentially. Always use headings in sequential order (e.g., do not use a Heading 3 if there is no Heading 2 preceding it), and never use headings out of sequence just because you prefer the look of one over the other.

  • The page title or headline is always Heading 1.
  • Use the Heading 2 style for the first heading on the page after the title.
  • Use Heading 3 for the next heading under Heading 2, use Heading 4 for the next heading under Heading 3, and so on.
  • Do not use Heading 3 unless there is a Heading 2 in use above it.
  • Try to include as many keywords in headings as possible. Give thought to what users might search by or scan for.

Excerpts

  • Always include an excerpt for a post, page, event, link, or deadline.
  • Ideally, the excerpt should be different from the title; it should be a teaser of the full post — the objective is to grab the reader’s attention.
  • If possible, complement the title, instead of repeating it. Describe the post, tease the first paragraph, or ask a question to prompt readers to click through to get the answer.
  • Keep in mind that many search engines display approximately 155 characters (or possibly less) before the excerpt is truncated. Social media sites may share even fewer characters.

Curly Quotes

Use curly quotes in WordPress instead of straight quotes. This should be the default, but if you need keyboard shortcuts to create one:

On Macs:

  • Option + ] produces an opening single curly quote ( ‘ )
  • Option + Shift + ] produces a closing single curly quote ( ’ )
  • Option + [ produces an opening double curly quote ( “ )
  • Option + Shift + [ produces a closing double curly quote ( ” )

On PCs:

  • Alt + 0145 produces an opening single curly quote ( ‘ )
  • Alt + 0146 produces a closing single curly quote ( ’ )
  • Alt + 0147 produces an opening double curly quote ( “ )
  • Alt + 0148 produces a closing double curly quote ( ” )

Bylines / Authors

  • Always have a byline for editorial content. The byline for unspecified authors in the Harvard Law Today WordPress site is Harvard Law News Staff.
  • For Harvard Gazette writers, use their name and the add-on “Harvard Gazette.”

Q&A Formatting

For editorial content in Harvard Law Today Q&As are formatted as follows:

  • Intro text formatted with a drop cap
  • Horizontal rule after intro text before questions and answers
  • Questions: publication name = “Harvard Law Today” on first mention, “HLT” on all following
  • Answers: respondent name(s) = Full name on first mention, last name only on all following

Keyboard Shortcuts

  • Ellipsis: Option + semicolon, on a PC hold down Alt key and type 0133
  • En dash: Mac Option + hyphen key, on a PC hold down Alt key and type 0150
  • Em dash: Mac Option + Shift + hyphen key, on a PC hold down Alt key and type 0151
  • See Curly Quotes above for additional shortcuts.

Additional Resources from the Associated Press

The Associated Press provides the following bibliography of associated sources and resources used in preparation of the AP Stylebook.

If you have questions, suggestions, or need additional guidance on our Editorial Style Guide, feel free to reach out to us at editorial@lists.law.harvard.edu.

Climate change

Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change: https://www.ipcc.ch/

NASA: https://climate.nasa.gov/

United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change: https://unfccc.int/

Disabilities

Disability Language Style Guide, National Center on Disability and Journalism: https://ncdj.org/style-guide/

Disability Writing & Journalism Guidelines, Center for Disability Rights: https://cdrnys.org/disability-writing-journalism-guidelines/

American Council of the Blind: https://www.acb.org/

American Foundation for the Blind: https://www.afb.org/

Autism Self Advocacy Network: https://autisticadvocacy.org/

National Federation of the Blind: https://nfb.org/

National Association of the Deaf: https://www.nad.org/

World Federation of the Deaf: https://wfdeaf.org/

General guidance and inclusive storytelling

Conscious Style Guide: https://consciousstyleguide.com/

The Diversity Style Guide: https://www.diversitystyleguide.com/

Guidelines for Inclusive Journalism, The Seattle Times: http://st.news/inclusivejournalism

Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association: https://apastyle.apa.org/

https://apastyle.apa.org/style-grammar-guidelines/bias-free-language

https://www.apa.org/about/apa/equity-diversity-inclusion/language-guide.pdf

Drugs; addictions

Media Guide, National Institute on Drug Abuse (PDF): https://nida.nih.gov/sites/default/files/mediaguide_web_3_0.pdf

Office of National Drug Control Policy: https://bit.ly/2X8Yz5d

International Society of Addiction Journal Editors: Addiction Terminology: https://www.isaje.net/addiction-terminology.html

AMA Task Force to Reduce Opioid Abuse: https://www.asam.org/blog-details/article/2021/08/09/patients-with-a-substance-use-disorder-need-treatment—not-stigma

National Institute on Drug Abuse: https://nida.nih.gov/

LGBTQ+

NLGJA: The Association of LGBTQ+ Journalists: https://www.nlgja.org/stylebook/

Style Guide, Trans Journalists Association: https://transjournalists.org/style-guide/

GLAAD Media Reference Guide: https://www.glaad.org/reference

AMA Manual of Style, American Medical Association: https://www.amamanualofstyle.com/

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association: https://www.psychiatry.org/psychiatrists/practice/dsm

Medical

AMA Manual of Style, American Medical Association: https://www.amamanualofstyle.com/

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, American Psychiatric Association: https://dsm.psychiatryonline.org/

Centers for Disease Control and Prevention: https://www.cdc.gov/

Journalism Resource Guide on Behavioral Health, the Carter Center (PDF): https://www.cartercenter.org/resources/pdfs/health/mental_health/2015-journalism-resource-guide-on-behavioral-health.pdf

National Institute of Mental Health: https://www.nimh.nih.gov

National Alliance on Mental Illness: https://nami.org/Home

The Merck Manuals Online Medical Library: https://www.merckmanuals.com/professional

U.S. National Library of Medicine and the National Institutes of Health, MedlinePlus: https://medlineplus.gov/

Influence and Effects of Weight Stigmatisation in Media: A Systemic Review. James Kite, Bo-Huei Huang, Yvonne Laird, Anne Grunseit, Bronwyn McGill, Kathryn Williams et. al., The Lancet. https://www.thelancet.com/journals/eclinm/article/PIIS2589-5370(22)00194-8/fulltext

Asian American Journalists Association guidance: https://www.aaja.org/news-and-resources/guidances/

Cultural Competence Handbook, National Association of Hispanic Journalists (PDF): https://nahj.org/wp-content/uploads/2021/03/NAHJ-Cultural-Compliance-Handbook-Revised-12-20-2.pdf

Cultural competence guides, Michigan State University: https://news.jrn.msu.edu/culturalcompetence/

Reporting guides, Indigenous Journalists Association: https://indigenousjournalists.org/resources/reporting-guides/

Style Guide, National Association of Black Journalists: https://www.nabj.org/page/styleguide

Religion

Handbook of Denominations in the United States, Abingdon Press: https://www.abingdonpress.com/product/9781501822513/

Religion Stylebook, Religion Newswriters Association: http://religionstylebook.com/

World Christian Encyclopedia, Oxford University Press: https://www.worldchristiandatabase.org/

Suicide

American Foundation for Suicide Prevention: https://afsp.org/reporting-on-suicide-prevention

Reporting on suicide guidelines: https://reportingonsuicide.org/

Tempos Tool Interactive (Tool for Evaluating Media Portrayals of Suicide; Santa Clara County and Stanford Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences) : https://tempos.su.domains/

First reference for spelling, style, usage and foreign geographic names

Merriam-Webster: https://www.merriam-webster.com/

Other references for spelling, style, usage and foreign geographic names

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language, HarperCollins: https://www.ahdictionary.com/

Oxford English Dictionary, Oxford University Press: https://languages.oup.com/dictionaries/

National Geographic Atlas of the World, National Geographic Society: https://www.nationalgeographic.org/society/education-resources/mapmaker-launch-guide/

For federal government questions

Congressional Directory; U.S. Government Publishing Office. This page offers information on current and past members of the U.S. Congress: https://www.congress.gov/members

For non-U.S. government questions

The World Factbook, Central Intelligence Agency: https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/

For a company’s formal name

Consult the national stock exchanges: the New York Stock Exchange, https://www.nyse.com/index, or Nasdaq, https://www.nasdaq.com/.

Other references and writing guides

The Word, by Rene J. Cappon. The Associated Press.

Fowler’s Dictionary of Modern English Usage, edited by Jeremy Butterfield. Oxford University Press.

Garner’s Modern English Usage, by Bryan A. Garner. Oxford University Press.

The Chicago Manual of Style, University of Chicago Press.

The Elements of Style, by William Strunk Jr. and E.B. White. Pearson.